Tracks the history of summative assessment in the United States since the late 1800s. Explains that there are two basic forms of summative assessment 1) “Teacher judgment in the form of evaluation of summative assessments in class and assignment of grades on the report card” and 2) “External tests for scientific, program and institutional evaluation purposes”. Examines the history of teacher judgments and explains that there is a lack of validity and reliability of these judgments, which is why the use of standardized tests has been preferred in the United States