Organic ChemistryOrganic compounds are covalently bonded compounds containing carbon, excluding carbonates and oxides. Carbon atoms are unique in their ability to bond by catenation, which involves forming long chains and rings by covalently bonding an element to itself. In addition to bonding with themselves, carbon atoms are capable of bonding to elements with similar electronegativities. Organic compounds are made up of carbon and these other elements. Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on "Why Violent Video Games Shouldn't Be Banned"? Get an original essay Hydrocarbons are the simplest organic compounds, composed only of carbon and hydrogen. Saturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons in which each carbon atom in the molecule forms four single covalent bonds with other atoms. Hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds are alkanes. The boiling point of alkanes increases with increasing molecular mass. The carbon-hydrogen bonds of alkanes are nonpolar, and the only attractive forces between nonpolar molecules are weak intermolecular forces. Methane, ethane, propane and butane are all gases at room temperature. Pentane, octane and decane are all liquids at room temperature. Heptadecane and eicosane are solids at room temperature. Cycloalkanes are alkanes in which the carbon atoms are arranged in a ring, or cyclic, structure. In fractional distillation, the components of a mixture are separated based on boiling point, by condensing vapor in a fractionating column. The octane number of a fuel is a measure of its combustion efficiency and anti-knock properties. The octane scale is based on mixtures of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane, isooctane. Pure 2,2,4-trimethylpentane is very shock resistant and is assigned an octane rating of 100. Pure heptane has an octane rating of 0 and burns with many impacts. Increasing the percentage of branched-chain alkanes in gasoline is one way to increase the octane rating. Unsaturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons in which not all carbon atoms have four single covalent bonds. Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain double covalent bonds. Alkenes are nonpolar and show trends in properties similar to those of alkanes in boiling points and physical states. -farnesene has 15 carbon atoms and 4 double bonds. It is solid at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. It is found in the natural wax coating of apples. Ethene is the largest commercially produced hydrocarbon in the United States. It is used in the synthesis of many commercially important plastics and alcohols. Ethene is also an important plant hormone. Hydrocarbons with triple covalent bonds are alkynes. This triple bond requires the simplest alkyne to have two carbon atoms. Alkynes, like other hydrocarbons, show the same trends in boiling points and physical state and are nonpolar. The smallest alkyne, ethyne, is a gas. The combustion of ethyne when mixed with pure oxygen produces the intense heat of welding torches. The common name for ethyne is acetylene and these welding torches are commonly called oxyacetylene torches. Aromatic hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons with six-membered carbon rings and delocalized electrons. Benzene is the primary aromatic hydrocarbon. Benzene rings are chemically very stable, a property that can be explained by the concept of delocalized electrons. Therefore, aromatic hydrocarbons are less reactive than alkenes and alkynes. Benzene was previously used as a non-polar solvent due to this stability. However, benzene is both a poison and a carcinogen. It's not polarand has limited solubility in water. Another aromatic hydrocarbon, 3,4-benzopyrene, is found in coal tar, tar from cigarette smoke, and soot from heavily polluted urban areas. As shown by studies, this compound is capable of causing cancer. Alcohols are organic compounds that contain one or more hydroxyl groups. The general formula for a class of organic compounds consists of the functional group and the letter R, which represents the rest of the molecule. The general formula of alcohols is R-OH. Formulas for some alcohols and alkanes are listed below...MethanolButaneEthanolEthane1-PropanolPropaneAlcohols are sometimes used today as alternative fuels and as octane enhancers in automobile fuel. Ethanol is combined with gasoline, for example, in a one-to-nine ratio to produce gasohol. All simple alcohols are poisonous to some extent. When ethanol is consumed, it is broken down by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase. Other simple alcohols are attacked by alcohol dehydrogenase more slowly, making these alcohols more toxic than ethanol. For example, methanol, or methyl alcohol, is converted to formaldehyde and formic acid, both of which are toxic. Toxic effects of methanol include optic nerve damage, coma, and death. Alkyl halides are organic compounds in which one or more halogen atoms (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine) are replaced with one or more hydrogen atoms in a hydrocarbon. Since -X is often used to represent any halogen, an alkyl halide can be represented by the general formula RX. The formula for trichlorofluoromethane is: The released chlorine atoms attack ozone (O3) molecules present in the upper atmosphere. Ozone is converted into diatomic oxygen. This makes it possible for a single chlorine atom to destroy thousands of ozone molecules. Another alkyl halide is tetrafluoroethylene. It is joined in long chains to form a material with the trade name Teflon. Its formula is C2F4. Ethers are organic compounds in which two hydrocarbon groups are bonded to the same oxygen atom. They can be represented by the general formula RO-R'. Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) is the most widely used ether. It is another gasoline octane booster. Aldehydes are organic compounds in which the carbonyl group is attached to a carbon atom at the end of a chain of carbon atoms. Ketones are organic compounds in which the carbonyl group is attached to carbon atoms within the chain. An example of a correctly named aldehyde and a correctly named ketone is: The simplest aldehyde is methanal. It was once commonly used in biology laboratories as a preservative for dead animals. Its most important commercial use, however, is in the production of plastic. The simplest ketone is 2propanone, whose common name is acetone. Acetone is found in some nail polish removers because it dissolves organic substances in nail polish. Aldehydes and ketones are also often responsible for odors and flavors. Carboxylic acids are organic compounds that contain the carboxyl functional group. The general formula is: A properly named carboxylic acid is: Numerous carboxylic acids occur naturally in plants and animals. For example, citrus fruits contain citric acid. Carboxylic acids are also used as food additives to impart a sour or acidic flavor. Benzoic, propanoic and sorbic acids are used as preservatives that can kill microorganisms that cause food spoilage. Esters are organic compounds with carboxylic acid groups in which the hydrogen of the hydroxyl group has been replaced by an alkyl group. The general formula for an ester is: Two examples of named esters.