IndexHistory and causes of Islamophobia in RussiaManifestations of Islamophobia in RussiaIslamophobia in EuropeConclusionToday the world is faced with many problems that lie in the sphere of multiculturalism. Multiculturalism as a whole presents many different questions and problems of minorities struggling to be heard. In my opinion, one of the main issues today is the problem of global Islamophobia. It is difficult to define the concept of “Islamophobia” because this term covers a very wide range of meanings and is open to interpretation. In general, Islamophobia is considered a kind of xenophobia, a collective definition of various forms of negative reaction to Islam, as well as related social phenomena. However, this definition may change as the problem develops. For example, researchers G. Engelhardt and A. Krymin believe that Islamophobia is “actions and statements that Muslims consider hostile to Islam.” This term refers to criticism of Muslims, Islamic activists, Islamic dogma and social practice. Another definition of Islamophobia, however, appeared in 1997 when the Runnymede Trust (published the report “Islamophobia is a challenge for all”. Gordon Conway, who led this project, believed that Islamophobia was "the fear and the hatred of Islam and Muslims inherent in Islamophobia"). the media at all levels and common to all sectors of society.'Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on 'Why should violent video games not be banned?'. Get an original essay. The first mention of the term "Islamophobia" appeared. in the essay by the orientalist Etienne Dine 'The East through the eyes of the West' (“L'Orient vu de l'occident”) to denote a negative attitude towards Islam, traceable through numerous clashes between the Muslim world and Europe from the beginning of the crusades until the period of colonialism, which was based on religion (Islam versus Christianity). A large number of definitions and variations of Islamophobia are explained by the fact that Islam, in any of its manifestations, plays one of the main political, economic and social roles in society. For example, the fear of Islam from a political point of view is determined with the help of the short formula: “Islam is not a partner, but an enemy”. That is, world powers initially perceive Islamic states as a possible threat or obstacle. As a result, they come to the conclusion that such states should be avoided, or kept “in place” or used for their own needs. Such unfounded prejudices are often at the origin of military conflicts in the Middle East. History and causes of Islamophobia in RussiaIn Russia during the monarchy the concept of Islam was rather vague, since there were restrictions on the distribution of religions, and the subjects had different rights and obligations depending on their religious affiliation. The officials knew practically nothing about Islamic culture and considered it something hostile and foreign. It can be said that before the revolution there was clear discrimination against Muslims: their ability to be represented in government was limited, Islamic religious institutions had no autonomy and were regulated by secular authorities. I think this policy was caused by the problematic relationship of the Russian Empire with the Ottoman Empire which represented the Islamic world. These two states at that time were the largest in Europe and constantly conducted military actions. The discriminatory policy towards Muslims was manifested, for example, in the decrees of Emperor Alexander II. According to one of the decrees, non-Christians were entitled to no more than a third of the seats in the city council, regardless of theirshare in the electorate. And in 1892 this limit was reduced to one fifth. The tsarist government showed distrust towards people of the Muslim faith, even in such an important aspect as military service. If it were necessary to gather a large army as quickly as possible, he would free the representatives of Islam in the Caucasus from the duty to serve. A separate side of Islam is Wahhabism. This is a religious branch, which is often confused with the Islamic religion itself. Wahhabism is a hostile, in some cases terrorist, ideology. It seems to me that the confusion between Islam and Wahhabism is the main cause of Islamophobia in many countries. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the process of religious revival began in the country. These conditions were considered favorable by supporters of Wahhabism. The fact is that many centers of religious education, where representatives of the Muslim clergy were trained in Soviet times, were abroad. The Muslims of the North Caucasus had to build their own system of religious education. This process inevitably faced a shortage of personnel and a lack of religious educational literature, based on the principles of traditional Islam in Russia. These shortfalls began to be reimbursed by foreign "benefactors" who offered teachers, literature and much more. As a result, it turned out that in the Muslim middle and higher educational institutions that appeared in the North Caucasus at the end of the last century, both teaching staff and textbooks were often of Arab origin. This is how the ideology of Wahhabism was introduced and promoted among impressionable youth. Another aspect that leads to the spread of Wahhabism on the territory of European countries and Russia is the foreign policy strategy of the countries of Saudi Arabia. At least six thousand Arab charitable foundations distributed Wahhabi literature in various countries of the world, including Russia, and sent preachers to local Muslims. Similar literature was spread through Russian pilgrims who visited Saudi Arabia during the Hajj (pilgrimage, visit to Mecca). The sharp increase in Islamophobia in the world is linked to the events of September 11 and the wars waged by the United States in Muslim countries. However, it is worth noting that mass anti-Muslim speeches in Russia were not recorded even after the terrorist attacks, the perpetrators of which declared their commitment to Islam. This is in contrast to the United States, where, following the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001, extreme anti-Muslim demonstrations and media articles were observed. In addition to identifying Islam and terrorism (Wahhabism), other causes of Islamophobia can be identified. . For example, sometimes state authorities do not wish to recognize certain Sharia rules. The problem of banning the wearing of hijab by Muslim girls in schools, universities and public places is well known. Interestingly, this ban can appear not only in non-Muslim countries. Turkish writer Orhan Pamuk in his work “Snow” describes the situation when in Türkiye, in one of the small towns, girls are forbidden to wear headscarves. Turkey is a very ambiguous country from the point of view of Islam, it contains elements of strict Sharia and a secular attitude towards the Koran. It turns out that such an interesting manifestation of Islamophobia applies not only to people of another religion. Be that as it may, the authorities' reluctance to recognize such demands (especially in a multinational state) leads to Islamophobia and religious confrontation. A criticism of some aspects of Islamic dogma and religious practice has the same effect. Since criticism of any phenomenon is done mainly through imedia, it appears that any negative statement about Islam in newspapers, magazines or television programs leads to the spread of Islamophobia. From here arise various prejudices and stereotypes associated with Islamic culture. Manifestations of Islamophobia in RussiaNumerous researchers, politicians, scientists and specialists have different opinions on the manifestations of Islamophobia in Russia. This is due to the great diversity of cultures and nations that coexist in the Russian Federation, as well as the ambiguity of sentences and the danger of complaints of discrimination. G. Engelhardt and A. Krymin, for example, believe that the persecution of Muslims in Russia from the “European point of view” does not exist. Islam is classified among the traditional religions, there are no obstacles to action on religious rights, the authorities provide assistance in the construction of new mosques, Islamic religious figures participate in government events, and the federal media offer their representatives a platform to spread their message. From their point of view this is sufficient to ensure that Russian Muslims do not suffer discrimination on the basis of religion. It seems to me that, if it is possible to draw such conclusions, it will be limited to the central and northwestern regions of Russia. Due to the large territory of our country, it is impossible to build categorical theories and define Islamophobia for the entire state. In all regions this manifests itself in different ways, since the percentage of Muslims is not the same everywhere. In some areas, the general xenophobic attitudes of the population do not mean a manifestation of religious hatred. For example, in the Russian regions of the European part of Russia and the Urals, the ethnic origin of visitors is emphasized, and not Islam. On the other hand, a number of Muslim leaders see manifestations of Islamophobia in Russia, which, in their opinion, consist in identifying Islam with terrorism, in not recognizing some norms of Sharia, in criticizing some norms of Islam in case of refusal to grant land for mosques. A striking example of such discrimination is the so-called Operation Fatima. According to this ordinance, in 2003, many Muslim women were tested as potential suicide bombers (or “kamikazes”). It was no longer sufficient for Muslim believers to show the policeman their passport with their registration. According to the instructions of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, within the framework of this special operation, it was recommended to check citizens wearing Islamic clothes, especially women wearing headscarves. According to G. Engelhardt and A. Krymin, the The emergence of the problem of Islamophobia in Russia is associated with the confrontation between the United States and the Islamic world. They believe that raising the issue of real or hypothetical persecution can be beneficial to the Muslim community for the following reasons: attracting new members, consolidating external pressure, attracting the attention of the opposition and foreign audiences, demonstrating power and influencing the news global. It turns out that the problem of Islamophobia can be directly related to political disagreements between the United States and Russia. There are opinions that the United States is using military conflicts in the Middle East as an attempt to scare Russia and find its vulnerable point. Iran is presented as a “model” Muslim country and the Iranian missile program serves as a pretext for the deployment of the US missile defense system. But this system is even more directed against Russia. Therefore, the Americans attract the Europeans to their side (and against Russia), because the more the Europeans fear Iran, the more they will be willing to support the American missile defense initiative. All these factors and manifestations lead to the fact that it is impossible to eliminate theproblem of Islamophobia in Russia while the population is under the influence of the media and while the government takes measures to discriminate against Islamic society. “Islamophobia has never disappeared in Russia, but now it has reached its peak in the entire post-communist era, and the authorities are doing nothing to stop it. It gained new strength with the start of the war in Chechnya and is growing with each terrorist attack attributed to Chechen terrorists… All Muslims living in the country become targets of Russian fear and hatred.” Islamophobia in Europe All the main research in Europe is conducted by the ECM - the European Observatory, which studies the issues of discrimination against the Muslim population. For example, with the help of studies conducted at this center, it was observed that after the events in London and New York, anti-Islamic propaganda increased significantly. Through ECM investigations, the main trends in image and mood towards Islam among Europeans were formed and many prejudicial stereotypes and general misunderstandings were clarified. The majority of Muslims, despite the general tendency towards acceptance, are discriminated against in the areas of employment, housing or education. For example, in Germany, where the general nationality of an average immigrant is Turkish, the unemployment rate among Muslims is 20%, while the national figure is only 8%. A similar situation is with education. According to statistics, in countries where a significant part of migrants are Muslims, the percentage of opportunities to obtain higher education from a representative of Islam is much lower than that of the indigenous population. Most Muslims in France do not receive high school or special secondary education. The same problem of Islamophobia also manifests itself when applying for a job. According to surveys, employers would prefer to hire "white" citizens rather than representatives of Islam, or Africans and other nationalities. Another finding of the ECM research is that hostility towards Muslims fits into the broader picture of xenophobia and racism towards migrants and minorities. . Islamophobia comes into great entanglement along with discrimination of various minorities on the basis of religion, gender and cultural differences. The problem of migrants lies in socioeconomic marginalization, which leads them to live in "neighboring clans" and not to enter into close contact with representatives of the main social group. Fear arises from ignorance and rejection, yet there is also the fault of the migrants themselves. This factor is even more important than religion. Obviously, the media plays an important role in shaping Islamophobia in Europe. Apart from a few atypical examples (the case of the hijab in France), then, if you pay attention to the headlines in European newspapers, all the sensational and dangerous topics for security will be linked to Islam in some way. Danger comes from Islam: in the form of direct physical danger - in the case of terrorism; in the form of danger to cultural, linguistic and national unity - in the case of discussion of specific religious practices; or in the form of a danger to established public order. The problem is that the media represents Muslim life in a “global” way, without highlighting that, for example, German Muslims have adopted greater secularism than conservative Muslims in Iran. This mix of global and “separate” forces EU citizens to see every Muslim as a potential threat. The media contributes to the construction of most of the problems of European Muslims, who, not being involved, are forced to 'pay' for the actions of others. And, of course, one of the forces.