IndexNatural plant productsPersonal protection methodsEnvironmental managementFuture trendsGenetic manipulationGenetic engineeringSterile insect techniqueFew success storiesConclusionPredators, especially fish such as Gambusia, Tilapia, Poeciellia and Aphanius dispar dispar. Viruses can also be used to kill mosquitoes. These viruses are useful because they are species-specific, non-toxic to humans, and easy to distribute. Protozoa, microsporidia, Metarhizium anisopliae, Beauveria tenella, Lagenidium giganteum and Chrysosprium lobatum. All of the above-mentioned pathogens are effective larvicides. Scholte et al. reported that adult A. gambiae is susceptible to Beauveria bassiana and M. anisopliae, and M. anisopliae 892 was effective against A. stephensi larvae. Say no to plagiarism. Get a tailor-made essay on "Why Violent Video Games Shouldn't Be Banned"? Get an original essay Other biological control agents include the nematode Romanomermis culci-vorax and the Azolla plant. Tadpole stages of amphibians are one of the natural predators of mosquitoes as they feed on mosquito larvae. Frogs, planktivorous fish, dragonfly naiads, hemipteran aquatic insects, such as Notonecta and Anisopus, dithyscid beetles, such as Rhantus, Ilybius and Agabus spp. malacostracans, anostracans, cyclopoid copepods and triclad flatworms can also control malaria because they feed on adult mosquitoes. According to a study conducted by Jennings et al.1995 it was demonstrated that the larval stages of mosquitoes are absent in aquatic habitats where Mesocyclops longisetus is present. Natural plant productsPhytochemicals are the alternatives to synthetic chemical insecticides. Few products that can be used as phytochemicals are crude aqueous extract of fruit pods of Swartzia madagascariensis against A. gambiae and petroleum ether extract of six plants Acorus calamus, Ageratum conyzoides, Annonasquamosa, Bambusa arundanasia, Madhuca longifolia and Citrus media against A. gambiae. Yuccaaloifolia crude extract is toxic to A. stephensi. The crude extract of the fruit of Solanum xanthocarpum and the aqueous extract of the roots of Hibiscus abelmoschus were toxic to the larvae of A.culicifacies. Spilanthes acmella Murr flower head extract. against Anopheles spp.Personal protection methodsThere are numerous methods of mosquito protection such as repellent oils, steaming coils, vaporizer mats, repellent creams, liquid vaporizers, etc. Their effectiveness lasts 5-7 hours and offer 60-80% protection. Allethrin and bioallethrin, significant constituents of synthetic pyrethroids, are toxic if used for a long time. Essential oils extracted from Mentha piper are 84.5-100% effective against A. culicifacies and turmeric, gingili and mustard oil are effective against A. fluviatilis. Other useful oils are neem oil from Azadiracta indica seeds, citronella oil and citronella oil. Neem oil has been found to be the most effective among all other oils. Neem oil mats are also very effective against mosquitoes. Smellbaits are very useful in endemic areas as they have a long-lasting effect and a slow release of their contents. One of the most popular odoribaist is DEET-N, N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide. About 200 million people have used DEET over the past 50 years as a mosquito repellent. The malaria epidemic in South Africa is controlled using DEET among the affected population. Environmental management Environmental management is the modification of the vector's habitat, creating an environment that is not suitable for the maturation of the larvae. There are three main groups within environmental management: environmental modification, environmental manipulation and human habitat modification (WHO,1982). In open water marsh management (OWMM), shallow ditches are created in marshes, which allow drainage of small mosquito habitats into large ponds or canals. In these stagnant channels, fish feed on these larvae. As a result, adult mosquitoes are reduced. Another strategy is rotational sequestration management (RIM). In this strategy, large pumps and culverts with flood gates are used to control the water level in the marsh. The gates allow commuting of fish, crustaceans and other native marsh organisms. This strategy is successful in Florida. Social, environmental and economic development has an indirect effect on malaria transmission. In Tanzania, the switch from thatched roofs to corrugated iron roofs has shown a reduction in mosquitoes indoors. Regular drainage of rice fields and cleaning of fish ponds have shown the disappearance of malaria in Java, Indonesia. Future trends In the integrated vector control approach, many tools are used together to control malaria transmission. Chemical control is mainly used in the last stage due to the risks and damage to the ecosystem. Chemical vector control methods are used to bring malaria below the threshold level during epidemics. The integrated vector control approach is eco-sensitive. It involves the coordination of several sectors including health, water, solid waste and sewage disposal, housing and agriculture (WHO2004). The integrated vector control approach together with malaria vaccines is highly effective in eliminating malaria. Genetic manipulation The availability of complete mosquito genome sequences has helped in genetic manipulation. Many powerful bioinformatics tools coupled with successfully sequenced insect genomes are helping to reduce malaria transmission rates. Genetic engineering and the sterile insect technique are the two genetic manipulation techniques tested. Genetic engineering In genetic engineering technology, foreign DNA (antiparasitic macromolecules) is introduced into the genome of mosquitoes, which makes them resistant to parasites or shortens the lifespan of vectors. These modified vectors are called transgenic organisms. They can be produced in two ways: biological and physical. To transport foreign DNA into mosquitoes, physical methods such as microinjection, biolistics, electroporation, and biological methods such as viruses, symbiotic microorganisms, mobile genetic elements can be used. In the last decade, many tools such as refractory genes, promoters, regulatory elements and effector molecules for creating refractory mosquitoes, transposable elements are developed, such as piggyBac, minos, mariner and hermes which have contributed to the progress. Microinjection is one of the standardized techniques and is useful for modifying the genome across embryos. Modification of the Akt gene, involved in signaling activities, reduced the invasion of the malarial parasite, increasing its resistance and decreasing its lifespan. Although transgenic technology is an alternative to current vector control modalities, it has a limitation in stable integration of the transgene into the germline. Paratransgenesis has emerged as an alternative to transgenic technology. In this technique, foreign DNA is introduced into the mosquito system through obligate endosymbiotic microorganisms and vertical transmission is possible. It is currently used in anopheline mosquitoes. A study conducted by Beard et al. in 1998 demonstrated that paratransgenesis technology is effective in controlling the transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi frompart of the Rhodniusprolixus. The identification and isolation of new target genes can be achieved by recombinant DNA and RNAi technology in combination with genetic transformation. It is difficult to develop transgenic variants for all vectors and the limitation is their introduction into the wild population. Sterile Insect Technique The sterile insect technique involves breeding, sterilizing and releasing genetically modified male mosquitoes to control the female population. Sterile insects can be produced using chemicals, radiation and genetic engineering technology. Few significant concerns in sterile insect technique involve the placement of equipped production units, large-scale production of sterile insects, trained human resources, and sexing of mosquitoes. Fluorescent molecular markers are needed to sort mosquitoes in their early stages. In this technique, the primary goal is to identify mosquito-killing genes based on sex. Pilot studies with sterile mosquitoes are underway in Sudan with the help of the International Atomic Energy Agency. There are few other genetic control techniques such as cytoplasmic incompatibility, incompatibility due to chromosomal factors, chromosomal translocations, conditional lethal chromosome, meiotic drive compound, etc. But these techniques are not widely tested. While using any of the new technologies, attention must be paid to risk assessment and environmental needs. Due to the development of transgenic technology, one of the concerns that arise is whether or not genetically modified insects are environmentally friendly. If they prove harmful, methods of controlling their deleterious effects should be known in advance. Malaria vectors are region-specific, so the technology used should conform to local conditions. The technology used to classify mosquitoes by sex is expensive, so current research is continuing to find a cost-effective and less technologically demanding solution. Few success stories The integrated malaria control program in Tanzania has shown greater acceptance of the malaria control program in the community using polystyrene beads (EPBS). In India, the use of indoor residual sprays and fish larvicides has shown a reduction in mosquitoes. In Indonesia, the disappearance of mosquitoes was achieved by periodically draining rice fields and cleaning fish ponds. Effective malaria control can be achieved by using several tools simultaneously or by complementing each other. In China, the malaria discount has been reduced by 99% using IRS, locally produced high-quality drugs, social mobilization, mosquito nets, and traditional artemisinin-based medicine. The mortality rate in Vietnam due to malaria was reduced by 97% by following techniques similar to those in China. Significant successes are achieved in the eradication of parasitic diseases of veterinary importance using GMO, Cochliomyia hominivorax, New World worm from the southern states of the United States, Mexico and Central America, and Libya using the SIT program. SIT has also been used successfully in the control of the Tsetse fly (Glossinaspp.) and the Medfly (Mediterranean fly - Ceratitis capitata). Conclusion Indoor residual sprays (IRS) and long-lasting insecticide-treated nets (LN) are so far most effective in vector control. Currently, materials treated with long-lasting insecticides such as sheets, curtains and wall coverings are useful for reducing malaria transmission. Even other methods, such as those not.
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